Narrative Theory - Wide Study

Narrative structure is concerned with both the the story itself and the technical styles used to tell that story. But one thing to remember is that narrative is not fixed. There is no right or wrong to how a story should be told. More often than not most films are told through a linear format, notably Quentin Tarantino and his very traditional use of 'chapters' to divide the acts in his films. However, critical acclaim can be gained by subverting the linear style and adopting a non-linear timeline, which also occurs in Tarantino's films and frequently in Guy Ritchie's films. I would say nowadays it is a technique more commonly found in television shows than in film, with flashbacks/flash-forwards providing suspenseful cliffhangers at the end of episodes.

The point of mentioning this is to point out that all the theorists I am about to refer to only offer perspectives on storytelling, not the definitive answer. They have found ways of categorising certain features which are common conventions in the majority of narratives, but do not promote a singular and correct form of narrative. 

Levi Strauss - Binary Oppositions

Binary Opposites are a pair of terms which function as antonyms of each other. Strauss believed that our understanding of a word originated not from it's direct meaning, but from our understanding of the differences between the word and its opposite. In their basic form, these include Good and Evil, Light and Dark, On and Off, Up and Down. 

With specific relation to narrative, binary opposites can be seen in terms of 'good vs evil', 'peace vs chaos', 'protagonist vs antagonist'. When we think of the hero and the villain, they can involve secondary binaries which derive from them. For example the hero can be handsome whereas the villain can be ugly, the hero can be liked and the villain is disliked, the hero can be content whereas the villain can be envious. These simple distinctions form the way we understand stories and are guided to sympathising with one side.

Batman and the Joker are a traditional binary opposite whereas the more contemporary Captain America: Civil War is centred around the exploration of two 'good' protagonists with conflicting philosophies, demonstrating the contemporary trend to show alternatives to the definitive understanding of good and evil to offer a more morally ambiguous story. 

Tzvetan Todorov - 5 Act Structure

Todorov's theory is directly associated with narrative. 

The main three stages (Equilibrium, Disequilibrium, Restoring equilibrium) can be closely compared with Syd Field's three acts. However Todorov proposed a more in-depth structure which includes two other points that give the story more exposition. 

1. Equilibrium- A state of stability; the story begins where everything is content.
2. Disequilibrium- An event occurs which disrupts the balance.
3. Realisation- The characters acknowledge the problem and become aware of the change.
4. Restoration-  The characters now face the problem in order to restore the balance in their lives.
5. Equilibrium- This stage demonstrates a cycle. With the disorder stopped, characters now settle back into their restored equilibrium, which would have likely changed the characters at a psychological level.

I'll demonstrate their relevance by applying these stages to the film 'The Last Samurai' with Tom Cruise. 

1. Equilibrium- Military captain Nathan Algren is an alcoholic suffering from PTSD after his atrocities in the American Indian War. 
2. Disequilibrium- During a battle Algren is outnumbered and ambushed by Samurai warriors. He is the only survivor and taken captive. 
3. Realisation- As Algren becomes more aware of his 'enemies' and their lifestyle Algren comes to the understanding that they are being oppressed by colonial expansion. 
4. Restoration- Algren's loyalties change and he takes up arms against the very army he once commanded.  
5. Equilibrium- Algren shows the politicians how the Samurai lived honourably and sought only to protect what is theirs. He returns to the Samurai village having left his former lifestyle behind. 

Roland Barthes - Narrative Codes

Barthes' studies on semiotics and how meaning is constructed can be applied to film. Barthes argues that every narrative is woven around codes. He states that there are five different codes and that when a film uses only one, the narrative is 'closed' (meaning only one intended meaning can be denoted from it) but when the narrative uses more than one, it is known as 'open' (allowing for multiple interpretations). 

The five codes are as follows:

• The Hermeneutic Code (HER): Using ambiguity and implication to build suspense. Audiences are intrigued to see how loose ends will be tied up. This code is most commonly implemented in police procedural dramas, where the audience's suspicions are frequently toyed with. 
• The Enigma/Proairetic Code (ACT): Another code of suspense, but this time through actions rather than implications. The audience are in anticipation of how the action will be resolved, not in a state of mystery.  
• The Symbolic Code (SYM): Often where semantic meanings are conveyed through a visual motif or symbol appearing, like the use of colour in 'Breaking Bad'. 
• The Cultural Code (REF): Points to the shared knowledge of the audience. The contexts bear resemblance to relatable cultural factors. 
• The Semantic Code (SEM): Underlying meanings and interpretations beyond the literal explanation.

Vladimir Propp - Character Archetypes

Propp is very similar to Todorov in his examination of narrative conflict (hero and villain, hero is branded, villain is overcome) but he also focused on archetypal character traits. 

1. Hero- character driven and motivated to restore the equilibrium
2. Villain- antagonist who initiates the disequilibrium and creates conflict against the hero.
3. Dispatcher- character who sends the hero on his quest, often a noble or an elder giving great responsibility to the protagonist. 
4. Donor- at some point in the narrative the hero is given an object or talisman to help them on their quest. The donor is the character who offers this aid.
5. Helper- a loyal and stereotypically comical character, the helper follows the hero on his quest to offer assistance. 
6. Princess- a love interest or character the hero attempts to win over who eventually recognises the hero's qualities. 
7. False Hero- A usurper or praised character that is built up to be a hero, but his qualities are diminished by the hero's modesty. 

Joseph Campbell - Hero's Journey

In 1949 Campbell proposed the idea of the monomyth, or the hero's journey, which is the protagonist's arc over the course of the narrative. The three main stages he comes up with also tie into Syd Field's 3 Acts as well as Todorov's Equilibrium. They are called the Departure, Initiation, and Return. 

He lists many different events within each of the three stages, but in summary the Departure act is the 'Call to Action,' the Initiation is the 'Road of Trials' and the Return is 'Freedom to Live.'

Although I have mentioned Syd Field a lot, I do not feel that his 3 Act structure needs explaining, since we have seen it among these theorists in different forms. For example Todorov and Campbell both implement his structure but with more depth. 

When looking at the theories I would like to use in my own narrative, I think short films will be incredibly different to apply certain structure to. Therefore until I have examined the conventions of short films I do not want to select any of the above structures.